Origin of Conference of Parties (COPs)

The Conference of the Parties (COP) is a key component of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC was adopted during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1994. Its objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

The Conference of the Parties serves as the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC. It convenes annually to assess progress in dealing with climate change, negotiate and adopt new commitments, and review and enhance the implementation of existing agreements. The COP meetings provide a platform for countries to come together, share information, negotiate agreements, and coordinate actions to address climate change on a global scale.

The first Conference of the Parties (COP 1) took place in Berlin, Germany, in 1995. Since then, COP meetings have been held annually in different cities around the world, with each meeting building upon the outcomes of previous meetings and setting the agenda for future actions to combat climate change.

Key milestones include the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which established binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries, and the Paris Agreement in 2015, which set the framework for global climate action by committing countries to nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance resilience.

Today, the COP meetings continue to play a central role in shaping the global response to climate change, bringing together governments, civil society organizations, businesses, and other stakeholders to accelerate progress towards a sustainable and climate-resilient future.

India has been an active participant in the COP meetings. With a large and diverse population, vast geographical variations, and significant dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water resources, and forestry, India is acutely aware of the importance of international cooperation in addressing climate change.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty aimed at addressing climate change on a global scale. Adopted during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the UNFCCC entered into force on March 21, 1994. It serves as the foundation for international cooperation to combat climate change and its impacts.

Key objectives of the UNFCCC include:

• Stabilizing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations: The UNFCCC seeks to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
• Promoting Sustainable Development: The convention emphasizes the importance of sustainable development in addressing climate change, recognizing the interdependence between economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection.
• Supporting Vulnerable Countries: The UNFCCC acknowledges the special needs and concerns of developing countries, particularly those that are most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, and commits to supporting their adaptation and mitigation efforts.
• Promoting International Cooperation: The convention promotes international cooperation and collaboration to address climate change, encouraging countries to work together to achieve common goals and share knowledge, technology, and financial resources.

Under the UNFCCC, countries that are parties to the convention meet annually at the Conference of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change, negotiate and adopt new commitments, and review and enhance the implementation of existing agreements. The COP serves as the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC, providing a platform for countries to come together, exchange information, and coordinate actions to address climate change.

Over the years, the UNFCCC has facilitated the negotiation and adoption of landmark agreements, including the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015. These agreements set targets and frameworks for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing climate resilience, and mobilizing financial and technical support for climate action.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific body established by the United Nations (UN) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988. Its job is to advance scientific knowledge about climate change caused by human activities.

Key aspects of the IPCC include:

1. Assessment Reports: The IPCC produces comprehensive assessment reports approximately every six to seven years, along with special reports on specific topics. These reports assess the latest scientific literature on climate change, including its causes, impacts, and potential solutions. The reports undergo rigorous peer review and involve thousands of scientists from around the world.

2. Working Groups: The IPCC is organized into three working groups, each focusing on specific aspects of climate change:

• Working Group I: Assesses the physical science basis of climate change.
• Working Group II: Assesses the impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation options related to climate change.
• Working Group III: Assesses the mitigation of climate change, including strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sinks.

3. Synthesis Reports: The IPCC synthesizes the findings of its assessment reports into concise summary documents tailored for policymakers. These synthesis reports provide policymakers with clear and accessible summaries of the scientific consensus on climate change and its implications for decision-making.

4. Policy-Relevance: The IPCC does not conduct new research but synthesizes and assesses existing scientific literature. Its assessments are policy-relevant rather than policy-prescriptive, providing policymakers with the information they need to make informed decisions on climate-related issues.

5. Global Collaboration: The IPCC operates on a voluntary basis, with member countries nominating experts to participate in its assessments. Its reports reflect the collective expertise of scientists from diverse backgrounds and regions, ensuring that they represent a broad and comprehensive understanding of climate change.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty aimed at combating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Adopted at the third Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, the protocol entered into force on February 16, 2005. It serves as an extension of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), building upon its principles and objectives.

The main objective of the Kyoto Protocol was to work towards reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Specifically targeting industrialized countries, known as Annex I Parties, for emissions reductions, the protocol outlined binding targets for these nations. Developing countries were not subject to such targets but could participate in emissions reduction projects through mechanisms like the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

The Kyoto Protocol focused on six greenhouse gases, collectively referred to as "Kyoto gases." These include carbon dioxide $(CO_2)$, methane $(CH_4)$, nitrous oxide $(N_2O)$, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride $(SF_6)$. While the protocol targeted these gases due to their contribution to global warming, it's worth noting that HFCs and PFCs are often grouped together as fluorinated gases.

Key aspects of the Kyoto Protocol include:

1. Emissions Reduction Targets: The protocol establishes legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries, known as Annex I Parties. These countries are required to reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions to specific levels below their 1990 levels over a commitment period, which initially ran from 2008 to 2012.

2. Flexible Mechanisms: The Kyoto Protocol introduced three flexible mechanisms to help Annex I Parties meet their emissions reduction targets more cost-effectively:

• Emissions Trading: Annex I Parties can trade emissions allowances or credits with each other to meet their targets.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Annex I Parties can invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries and receive credits for the emissions reductions achieved.
• Joint Implementation (JI): Annex I Parties can undertake emissions reduction projects in other Annex I Parties and receive credits for the emissions reductions achieved.

3. Adaptation and Financial Assistance: The Kyoto Protocol includes provisions to support adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change, particularly in vulnerable developing countries. It also establishes a financial mechanism to provide funding for adaptation and mitigation activities in developing countries.

4. Compliance Mechanism: The protocol establishes a compliance mechanism to ensure that Annex I Parties fulfill their commitments. Parties are required to submit annual emissions inventories and undergo periodic reviews to assess their compliance with their emissions reduction targets.

5. Subsequent Commitment Periods: The Kyoto Protocol allows for subsequent commitment periods beyond the initial period. The first commitment period ran from 2008 to 2012, and subsequent commitment periods have been negotiated and agreed upon by the Parties to the protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol has faced challenges and limitations, particularly regarding the participation of major emitters and the effectiveness of its mechanisms, the protocol laid the groundwork for subsequent climate agreements and initiatives, including the Paris Agreement.

Montreal Action Plan

The Montreal Action Plan (MAP) was an agreement reached during the 11th Conference of Parties (COP 11) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), held in Montreal in 2005. The primary objective of the MAP was to extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its initial expiration date in 2012 and to negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse gas emissions.

Key components of the Montreal Action Plan included:

• Initiating negotiations without delay on an extension of the Kyoto Protocol: The MAP recognized the urgency of addressing climate change and called for immediate action to begin negotiations for an extension of the Kyoto Protocol beyond 2012.
• Commitment to deeper cuts in greenhouse gas emissions: Parties to the agreement expressed their willingness to negotiate deeper reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, building upon the targets established in the Kyoto Protocol.
• Framework for future negotiations: The MAP provided a roadmap for future negotiations on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, emphasizing the importance of international cooperation and commitment.

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted in December 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), held in Paris, France. It represents a landmark global commitment to combat climate change and its impacts.

Key features of the Paris Agreement include:

• Limiting global warming: The primary goal of the Paris Agreement is to limit the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. This objective is crucial for avoiding the most severe impacts of climate change.
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each participating country is required to submit its own NDC, which outlines its targets and actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. NDCs are intended to be ambitious, fair, and representative of each country's circumstances.
• Transparency and accountability: The Paris Agreement establishes a framework for transparently reporting and reviewing countries' progress toward their NDCs. This includes regular reporting cycles and a global stocktake every five years to assess collective progress towards the agreement's goals.
• Financial support: Developed countries are expected to provide financial assistance to developing countries to support their efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. The agreement reaffirms the commitment to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 and calls for increased financial flows beyond that date.
• Technology transfer and capacity-building: The Paris Agreement promotes the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and knowledge sharing to support climate action, particularly in developing countries. It also emphasizes the importance of building capacity to address climate change effectively.
• Long-term goal: The agreement includes a long-term goal to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in the second half of the century, signaling a collective commitment to transitioning to a low-carbon economy.

Post-Paris Scenario

• Enhanced Ambition: Following the Paris Agreement, there has been a call for increased ambition in climate action. Many countries have pledged to enhance their NDCs to align with the goals of the agreement, including reaching net-zero emissions by mid-century.
• Net-Zero Targets: A significant development in the post-Paris scenario is the adoption of net-zero emissions targets by countries, regions, cities, and corporations. These targets aim to achieve carbon neutrality by balancing emissions with removals or offsets.
• Renewable Energy Transition: There has been a global shift towards renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power. Countries are investing in renewable energy infrastructure and phasing out coal and other fossil fuels.
• Climate Finance: Efforts to mobilize climate finance to support developing countries in their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts have intensified. However, there are ongoing discussions about the adequacy and effectiveness of climate finance mechanisms.
• Nature-Based Solutions: There is growing recognition of the role of nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and ecosystem restoration, in mitigating climate change and enhancing resilience.